Tsakonian Digital VaultThe Tsakonian verbal system blends conservative Doric features with unique innovations. Its two defining traits are a productive system of grammatical aspect — whether an action is viewed as ongoing or repeated (imperfective) versus completed or single (perfective) — and the heavy use of periphrastic (compound) constructions where Standard Modern Greek (SMG) uses a single inflected word. For example, ‘I see’ is not one word but the auxiliary ένι (‘I am’) plus a participle:
Ένι ορού.
Éni oroú.
‘I see.’ / ‘I am seeing.’
Tsakonian is in fact the only Greek dialect whose present and imperfect are exclusively periphrastic, a defining feature that sets it apart from every other Greek variety (Liosis, 2017).
Grammar glossary:
- Aspect: whether an action is viewed as ongoing/repeated (imperfective) or completed/single (perfective) — a distinction more prominent in Tsakonian than in English.
- Voice: whether the subject does the action (active) or receives it (passive).
- Periphrastic: a construction using two words (an auxiliary + a main-verb form) instead of a single inflected form, e.g. ένι ορού (éni oroú, ‘I see’).
- Participle: a verb form used like an adjective or as part of a compound tense (English ‘seeing’, ‘seen’).
See 1.3 Doric heritage for the historical origin of the periphrastic system.
Mood and Tense
Tsakonian distinguishes several moods — indicative, subjunctive, imperative, and conditional — and within each a set of tenses marking time and aspect. The system corresponds closely to that of Standard Modern Greek, with one major exception: Tsakonian preserves a morphologically distinct continuous (imperfective) present subjunctive, e.g. να ορίνου (na orínou, ‘to keep seeing’), which no longer exists in SMG, where only the perfective να οράου (na oraoú, ‘to see [once]’) survives (Liosis, 2017).
Indicative mood
The indicative mood is used to make factual statements and describe reality directly, as in ένι γράφου ένα γράμμα (éni gráfou éna grámma, ‘I am writing a letter’).
Present
Expresses ongoing or habitual actions at the time of speaking. It is always formed periphrastically (auxiliary ένι + present participle), unlike Standard Modern Greek.
Ένι ορού.
Éni oroú.
‘I see.’ / ‘I am seeing.‘
Imperfect
Expresses ongoing or habitual actions in the past. Also periphrastic (auxiliary έμα + present participle).
Έμα ορού.
Éma oroú.
‘I was seeing.’ / ‘I used to see.‘
Aorist (simple past)
Expresses a single, completed past action. Unlike the present and imperfect, the aorist is formed synthetically (a single word).
Οράκα.
Oráka.
‘I saw.‘
Perfect
Expresses a past action with present relevance — a completed event whose results still bear on the present. Formed with ένι έχου (‘I have’) + perfect participle (the verbal adjective in -τέ).
Ένι έχου φτατέ.
Éni échou ftaté.
‘I have arrived.‘
Pluperfect
Expresses a past action completed before another past event. Formed with έμα έχου (‘I had’) + perfect participle.
Έμα έχου φτατέ.
Éma échou ftaté.
‘I had arrived.‘
Future continuous
Expresses ongoing or habitual actions in the future. Formed with θα + imperfective (continuous) present subjunctive.
Θα ορίνου.
Za orínou.
‘I will be seeing.’ / ‘I will keep seeing.‘
Future simple
Expresses a single, completed action in the future. Formed with θα + perfective (aorist) subjunctive.
Θα οράου.
Za oraoú.
‘I will see.‘
Future perfect
Expresses an action that will be completed before a future point in time. Formed with θα έχου + perfect participle.
Θα έχου φτατέ.
Za échou ftaté.
‘I will have arrived.‘
Subjunctive mood
The subjunctive is introduced by the particle να and expresses wishes, intentions, purpose, obligation, and possibility, as in ένι θέου να οράου (éni zéou na oraoú, ‘I want to see’). It also serves as the base for the future and conditional forms. Unlike Standard Modern Greek — where only the perfective subjunctive survives — Tsakonian maintains a morphological distinction between a continuous (imperfective) and a punctual (perfective) present subjunctive (Liosis, 2017).
Present subjunctive — continuous (imperfective)
Expresses an ongoing or repeated action in a subordinate context. This form is unique to Tsakonian and no longer exists in SMG. It is built by inserting an imperfective morpheme (e.g. -ίν-) between the stem and the ending.
Ένι θέου να ορίνου.
Éni zéou na orínou.
‘I want to keep seeing.’ / ‘I want to be seeing (continuously).’
Present subjunctive — punctual (perfective)
Expresses a single, completed action in a subordinate context. This form corresponds to the SMG present subjunctive and uses the aorist (perfective) stem.
Ένι θέου να οράου.
Éni zéou na oraoú.
‘I want to see (once).’
Imperative mood
The imperative gives direct commands, instructions, and requests. Like the subjunctive, it distinguishes imperfective (ongoing or repeated) from perfective (single or completed) aspect.
Continuous imperative (imperfective)
Commands an ongoing or repeated action.
Ορήνε!
Oríne!
‘Keep looking!’ / ‘Look (repeatedly)!’
Punctual imperative (perfective)
Commands a single action.
Ορά!
Orá!
‘Look!’
Conditional mood
The conditional expresses hypothetical or contrary-to-fact situations. Formed with θάκια + the subjunctive, it mirrors the future in distinguishing continuous from simple aspect.
Conditional continuous
Expresses a hypothetical ongoing or habitual action. Formed with θάκια + imperfective present subjunctive.
Θάκια ορίνου.
Zákia orínou.
‘I would be seeing.’ / ‘I would keep seeing.‘
Conditional simple
Expresses a hypothetical single or completed action. Formed with θάκια + aorist (perfective) subjunctive.
Θάκια οράου.
Zákia oraoú.
‘I would see.‘
Voice
Tsakonian distinguishes two voices: the active, where the subject performs the action, e.g. ένι ορού (éni oroú, ‘I see’), and the passive, where the subject receives it, e.g. ένι ορούμενε (éni oroúmene, ‘I am seen’). Each voice has its own forms across the aspectual and temporal range, shown here for the verb ορού (oroú, ‘to see’) (Lysikatos, n.d.):
| Aspect | Time | Active voice | Passive voice |
|---|---|---|---|
| Imperfective | Non-past | ένι ορού éni oroú ’I see’ | ένι ορούμενε éni oroúmene ’I am seen’ |
| Past | έμα ορού éma oroú ’I was seeing’ | έμα ορούμενε éma oroúmene ’I was being seen’ | |
| Perfective | Non-past | οραού oraoú ’to see (once)‘ | οραθού orazoú ’to be seen (once)‘ |
| Past | οράκα oráka ’I saw’ | οράμα oráma ’I was seen’ |
Active
The active voice presents the subject as the agent of the action. In the imperfective non-past and past it is periphrastic (ένι / έμα + present participle), e.g. έμα γράφου (éma gráfou, ‘I was writing’), while the perfective is synthetic, e.g. οράκα (oráka, ‘I saw’). The full active paradigm of regular verbs is given under Verb paradigms below.
Passive
The passive voice presents the subject as the recipient of the action, e.g. ένι ορούμενε (éni oroúmene, ‘I am seen’). In Tsakonian, passive participles act as full verbs in the clause — in ένι ορούμενε the participle is the main verb, not just a descriptor (Lysikatos, n.d.).
- Imperfective forms are periphrastic and use a participle ending in -μένε (-méne), e.g. ορούμενε (oroúmene, ‘being seen’).
- Perfective forms are single words, e.g. οραθού (orazoú, ‘to be seen once’).
Aspect
Aspect is the central organising feature of the Tsakonian verb, cutting across every mood and tense. It distinguishes the imperfective (an action seen as ongoing or repeated) from the perfective (an action seen as a single, completed whole). The same temporal reference can therefore be expressed two ways: θα ορίνου (za orínou, ‘I will keep seeing’, imperfective) versus θα οράου (za oraoú, ‘I will see [once]’, perfective).
Imperfectivity is marked by morphemes that follow the verb stem. The contrast between the imperfective and perfective subjunctive illustrates this (Liosis, 2017):
| Imperfective | Transliteration | Perfective | Transliteration | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| να απρού-κ̔-ου | na aproú-kh-ou | να απρού | na aproú | ’spread’ |
| να ορ-ίν-ου | na or-ín-ou | να οράου | na oraoú | ’see’ |
The segments -κ̔- (-kh-) and -ίν- (-ín-) are imperfective morphemes inserted between the stem and the ending. Tsakonian’s retention of a distinct imperfective present subjunctive — lost in Standard Modern Greek — is what makes the pair να ορίνου / να οράου possible at all.
Gender distinction in periphrastic tenses
A remarkable feature of the periphrastic system is that the participle in the present and imperfect indicative agrees in gender with the subject — a feature unique among Greek varieties (Kostakis, 1951). A man says ένι ορού (éni oroú, ‘I see’, masc.), but a woman says ένι ορά (éni orá, ‘I see’, fem.):
| Gender | Present (‘I want’) | Transliteration | Imperfect (‘I wanted’) | Transliteration |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | ένι θέου | éni zéou | έμα θέου | éma zéou |
| Feminine | ένι θέα | éni zéa | έμα θέα | éma zéa |
| Neuter | ένι θέουντα | éni zéounda | έμα θέουντα | éma zéounda |
Verb paradigms
A verb paradigm (or conjugation class) is a group of verbs that share an ending and are conjugated in exactly the same way. Tsakonian verbs fall into two broad conjugations, called Type A and Type B, defined by the ending of the active verb form:
- Type A ends in unstressed -ου (e.g. γράφου, gráfou, ‘to write’),
- Type B ends in stressed -ού (e.g. ορού, oroú, ‘to see’).
Each type is then subdivided into numbered classes that share a specific ending pattern (García Chaparro, 2023).
How to use the tables below: identify a verb’s class from its present-indicative ending, then attach the class endings shown in each column to the stem to build the aorist, subjunctive, participle, and so on. The periphrastic tenses (present, imperfect, perfect, futures) are then assembled from these parts using the auxiliaries ένι (‘to be’) and έχου (‘to have’), as set out in the Annex. For instance, from γράφου (gráfou, class PA6) the aorist is έγραβα (égrava, ‘I wrote’) and the perfect participle γραφτέ (graftέ, ‘written’), which combines with ένι έχου to form the perfect.
Verb ένι (to be)
The verb ένι (éni, ‘to be’) is the copula and the central auxiliary of the periphrastic system: it combines with participles to build the present and imperfect of every other verb, e.g. ένι ορού (éni oroú, ‘I see’). Because the Future Simple normally takes the aorist subjunctive — which ένι lacks — its future and conditional are built on the present subjunctive instead. The conjugation table below includes the negative forms, which are formed with an ο- prefix replacing the initial ε-, e.g. ένι → όνι (óni, ‘I am not’) (García Chaparro, 2023):
| Polarity | Number | Person | Present Indicative | Aorist (Imperfect) | Future | Conditional |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Affirmative | Sing. | 1st | ένι (éni) | έμα (éma) | θα + present subjunctive | θάκια + present subjunctive |
| 2nd | έσι (ési) | έσα (ésa) | ||||
| 3rd | έν̇ι (én’i) | έκι (éki) | ||||
| Plur. | 1st | έμε (éme) | έμαϊ (émaï) | |||
| 2nd | έτ̔ε (éthe) | έτ̔αϊ (éthaï) | ||||
| 3rd | είνι (eíni) | ήγκι(αϊ) (íngki(aï)) | ||||
| Negative | Sing. | 1st | όνι (óni) | όμα (óma) | Ο θα + present subjunctive | Ο θάκια + present subjunctive |
| 2nd | όσι (ósi) | όσα (ósa) | ||||
| 3rd | όν̇ι (ón’i) | όκι (óki) | ||||
| Plur. | 1st | όμε (óme) | όμαϊ (ómaï) | |||
| 2nd | ότ̔ε (óthe) | ότ̔αϊ (óthaï) | ||||
| 3rd | ούνι (oúni) | ούγκι(αϊ) (oúngki(aï)) |
Verb έχου (to have)
Tsakonian expresses ‘to have’ periphrastically as ένι έχου (literally ‘I am having’), corresponding to SMG έχω (écho). It is built from the copula ένι plus the participle έχου, e.g. ένι έχου (éni échou, ‘I have’). Crucially, it then serves as the auxiliary for the compound past tenses: the perfect and pluperfect of any verb are formed with ένι έχου / έμα έχου + the perfect participle, e.g. ένι έχου φτατέ (éni échou ftaté, ‘I have arrived’) (Kostakis, 1951).
| Number | Person | Present Indicative | Present Subjunctive | Imperative | Aorist (Imperfect) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sing. | 1st | ένι έχου (éni échou) | έχου (échou) | έμα έχου (éma échou) | |
| 2nd | έσι έχου (ési échou) | έχερε (échere) | έχε (éche) | έσα έχου (ésa échou) | |
| 3rd | έν̇ι έχου (én’i échou) | έχει (échei) | έκι έχου (éki échou) | ||
| Plur. | 1st | έμε έχου (éme échou) | έχομε (échome) | έμαϊ έχου (émaï échou) | |
| 2nd | έτ̔ε έχου (éthe échou) | έχετε (échete) | έτ̔αϊ έχου (éthaï échou) | ||
| 3rd | είνι έχου (eíni échou) | έχωι (échoi) | ήγκι έχου (íngki échou) |
Its use as an auxiliary across the compound tenses is summarised below:
| Tense | Formation | Example | Transliteration |
|---|---|---|---|
| Perfect | ένι έχου + perfect participle | ένι έχου φτατέ ‘I have arrived’ | éni échou ftaté |
| Pluperfect | έμα έχου + perfect participle | έμα έχου φτατέ ‘I had arrived’ | éma échou ftaté |
| Future perfect | θα έχου + perfect participle | θα έχου φτατέ ‘I will have arrived’ | za échou ftaté |
Type A
Verbs ending in unstressed -ου. Three representative examples:
- γράφου (gráfou) — ‘to write’
- μπαίνου (baínou) — ‘to enter’
- δουλέγγου (douléngou) — ‘to work’
Full paradigm for Type A verbs (García Chaparro, 2023):
| Class | Present Ind. | Aorist Ind. | Aorist Subj. | Perfect Part. (-τέ) | Sample verb |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PA1 | -άνου (-ánou) | -άκα (-áka) | -άου (-áou) | -ατέ (-até) | χάνου (chánou, ‘to lose’) |
| -ίνου (-ínou) | -ίκα (-íka) | -ίου (-íou) | -ιτέ (-ité) | κλείνου (kleínou, ‘to close’) | |
| -ήνου (-ínou) | -ήκα (-íka) | -ήου (-íou) | -ητέ (-ité) | τσαφήνου (tsafínou, ‘to appear’) | |
| PA2A | -αίνου (-aínou) | -άκα (-áka) | -άου (-áou) | -ατέ (-até) | μπαίνου (baínou, ‘to enter’) |
| PA2H | -αίνου (-aínou) | -ήκα (-íka) | -ητέ (-ité) | μαθαίνου (mazaínou, ‘to learn’) | |
| PA2E | -αίνου (-aínou) | -έγκα (-éngka) | -ετέ (-eté) | ατσ̌εραίνου (atsheraínou, ‘to grow, make bigger’) | |
| PA3 | -ούνου (-oúnou) | -ούκα (-oúka) | -ού (-oú) | -ουτέ (-outé) | κατσ̌ούνου (katshoúnou, ‘to sit’) |
| PA4 | -ούκ̔ου (-oúkhou) | -ούκα (-oúka) | -ού (-oú) | -ουτέ (-outé) | κ̔οντούκ̔ου (khontoúkhou, ‘to approach’) |
| PA5 | -ίχου (-íchou) | -ία (-ía) | -ίτσου (-ítsou) | -ιτέ (-ité) | τ̔αΐχου (thaíchou, ‘to feed’) |
| -ίντου (-íntou) | -ία (-ía) | -ίτσου (-ítsou) | -ιτέ (-ité) | τραβίντου (travíntou, ‘to pull’) | |
| -ύντου (-ýntou) | -ύα (-ýa) | -ύτσου (-ýtsou) | -υτέ (-yté) | αβζ̌ύντου (avzhýntou, ‘to rinse’) | |
| -άντου (-ántou) | -ά (-á) | -άτσου (-átsou) | -ατέ (-até) | φωνιάντου (foniántou, ‘to call out’) | |
| PA6 | -ίζου (-ízou) | -ία (-ía) | -ου (-ou) | -ιστέ (-isté) | νιουρίζου (niourízou, ‘to itch’) |
| -ύζου (-ýzou) | -ύα (-ýa) | -ύσου (-ýsou) | -υστέ (-ysté) | κ̔ρύζου (khrýzzou, ‘to wash’) | |
| -άζου (-ázou) | -α (-a) | -άσου (-ásou) | -αστέ (-asté) | ακεικάζου (akeikázou, ‘to suppose’) | |
| PA7 | -φου (-fou) | -βα (-va) | -ψου (-psou) | -φτέ (-fté) | κιούφου (kioúfou, ‘to steal’) |
| PA8 | -έγγου (-éngou) | -εύα (-eúa) | -έψου (-épsou) | -ευτέ (-euté) | δουλέγγου (douléngou, ‘to work’) |
| PA9 | -ίγγου (-íngou) | -ία (-ía) | -ίτσου (-ítsou) | -ιτέ (-ité) | πρίγγου (príngou, ‘to saw’) |
| PA10 | -έχου (-échou) | -έα (-éa) | -έστου (-éstou) | -ετέ (-eté) | π̔ουντέχου (phountéchou, ‘to arrive’) |
| PA11 | -ίου (-íou) | -ούκα (-oúka) | -ου (-ou) | -ουτέ (-outé) | δίου / δίνου (díou / dínou, ‘to give’) |
| -οίου (-oíou) | -ήκα (-íka) | -οίου (-oíou) | -ητέ (-ité) | ποίου (poíou, ‘to do / make’) | |
| PA12 | -αίσου (-aísou) | -άκα (-áka) | -άου (-áou) | -ατέ (-até) | δαίσου (daísou, ‘to show’) |
| PA13 | -ρίκου (-ríkou) | -γα (-ga) | -ου (-ou) | -αρτέ (-arté) | αρίκ̔ου (aríkhou, ‘to take’) |
| PA14 | -ρου (-rou) | -ρκα (-rka) | -ρου (-rou) | -ρτέ (-rté) | γείρου (geírou, ‘to turn’) |
| PA15 | -άσσου (-ássou) | -ά (-á) | -άτσου (-átsou) | -αστέ (-asté) | αράσσου (arássou, ‘to strike’) |
| PA16 | -άχου (-áchou) | -ά (-á) | -άτσου (-átsou) | -ατέ (-até) | δενάχου (denáchou, ‘to show, appear’) |
| RD | -ντου (-ntou) / -ουντα (-ounta) | (impersonal defective verbs, e.g. χιονίντου, ‘to snow’) |
PA2 subclasses: verbs in -αίνου split into three paradigms by their aorist and perfective participle. Most take PA2A (-άκα / -ατέ); a smaller set takes PA2H (-ήκα / -ητέ, e.g. μαθαίνου, ‘to learn’). PA2E (-έγκα / -ετέ) verbs are usually derived from an adjective, e.g. ατσ̌εραίνου (atsheraínou, ‘to grow, make bigger’) → ατσ̌ερέγκα (atsherénka, ‘I grew’), from the adjective meaning ‘big’; another example is χαλαίνου (chalaínou, ‘to whiten’) → εχαλέγκα (echalénka, ‘I whitened’), from the adjective meaning ‘white’.
Type B
Verbs ending in stressed -ού. Three representative examples:
- ορού (oroú) — ‘to see’
- ρωτού (rotoú) — ‘to ask’
- φορού (foroú) — ‘to wear’
Full paradigm for Type B verbs (García Chaparro, 2023):
| Class | Present Ind. | Present Subj. | Aorist Ind. | Aorist Subj. | Perfect Part. (-τέ) | Sample verb |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PB1 | -αού (-aoú) | -ήνου (-ínou) | -άκα (-áka) | -άου (-áou) | -ατέ (-até) | αραμού (aramoú, ‘to rest’) |
| PB2 | -ού (-oú) | -ήνου (-ínou) | -ήκα (-íka) | -ήου (-íou) | -ητέ (-ité) | ρωτού (rotoú, ‘to ask’) |
| -ού (-oú) | -ήνου (-ínou) | -ήκα (-íka) | -ήου (-íou) | -ητέ (-ité) | αλ̣ησμονού (al’ismonoú, ‘to forget’) | |
| PB3 | -ού (-oú) | -ήνου (-ínou) | -έκα (-éka) | -έου (-éou) | -ετέ (-eté) | φορού (foroú, ‘to wear’) |
Note that the verb ορού (oroú, ‘to see’) belongs to PB2: its continuous present subjunctive is ορίνου (orínou) and its aorist οράκα (oráka, ‘I saw’).
Irregular verbs
A small set of high-frequency verbs is irregular: their stems change unpredictably between tenses (a phenomenon called suppletion), so they cannot be derived from any single paradigm. For example, αού (‘I say’) has the wholly unrelated aorist επέκα (‘I said’), and παρίου (‘I come’) the aorist εκάνα (‘I came’). Most are everyday verbs of motion, perception, and speech (García Chaparro, 2023). The first-person singular is given for each form below.
αού (aoú, ‘to say’)
Corresponds to SMG λέω. Suppletive aorist stem επε-.
| Form | Tsakonian | Transliteration | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Present indicative | ένι αού | éni aoú | ’I say’ |
| Imperfect | έμα αού | éma aoú | ’I was saying’ |
| Aorist indicative | επέκα | epéka | ’I said’ |
| Present subjunctive | να αλ̣ήνου | na al’ínou | ’that I keep saying’ |
| Aorist subjunctive | να αλ̣ήου | na al’íou | ’that I say’ |
| Imperative (continuous) | άλ̣ηνε | ál’ine | ’keep saying!’ |
| Imperative (simple) | άλε | ále | ’say!’ |
| Perfect participle | πετέ | peté | ’said’ |
| Passive present | ένι αλ̣ικούμενε | éni al’ikoúmene | ’I am said’ |
παρίου (paríou, ‘to come’)
Corresponds to SMG έρχομαι. Suppletive aorist εκάνα and aorist subjunctive μόλου.
| Form | Tsakonian | Transliteration | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Present indicative | ένι παρίου | éni paríou | ’I come’ |
| Imperfect | έμα παρίου | éma paríou | ’I was coming’ |
| Aorist indicative | εκάνα | ekána | ’I came’ |
| Aorist subjunctive | να μόλου | na mólou | ’that I come’ |
| Imperative (continuous) | παρίσου | parísou | ’keep coming!’ |
| Imperative (simple) | έα | éa | ’come!’ |
| Perfect participle | φερτέ | ferté | ’come’ |
έγγου (éngou, ‘to go’)
Corresponds to SMG πηγαίνω. Suppletive aorist stem ζα-.
| Form | Tsakonian | Transliteration | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Present indicative | ένι έγγου | éni éngou | ’I go’ |
| Imperfect | έμα έγγου | éma éngou | ’I was going’ |
| Aorist indicative | εζάκα | ezzáka | ’I went’ |
| Aorist subjunctive | να ζάου | na zzáou | ’that I go’ |
| Imperative (continuous) | έντζε | éntzze | ’keep going!’ |
| Imperative (simple) | χάγγε | chángge | ’go!’ |
| Perfect participle | ζατέ | zzaté | ’gone’ |
τσ̌ού (tshoú, ‘to eat’)
Corresponds to SMG τρώω. Suppletive aorist stem φα-.
| Form | Tsakonian | Transliteration | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Present indicative | ένι τσ̌ού | éni tshoú | ’I eat’ |
| Imperfect | έμα τσ̌ού | éma tshoú | ’I was eating’ |
| Aorist indicative | εφαήκα | efaíka | ’I ate’ |
| Present subjunctive | να τσ̌ούνου | na tshoúnou | ’that I keep eating’ |
| Aorist subjunctive | να φάου | na fáou | ’that I eat’ |
| Imperative (continuous) | τσ̌ούνε | tshoúne | ’keep eating!’ |
| Imperative (simple) | φάε | fáe | ’eat!’ |
| Perfect participle | φαητέ | faité | ’eaten’ |
αρίκ̔ου (aríkhou, ‘to take’)
Corresponds to SMG παίρνω. Suppletive aorist άγκα and participle παρτέ.
| Form | Tsakonian | Transliteration | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Present indicative | ένι αρίκ̔ου | éni aríkhou | ’I take’ |
| Imperfect | έμα αρίκ̔ου | éma aríkhou | ’I was taking’ |
| Aorist indicative | άγκα | ángka | ’I took’ |
| Aorist subjunctive | να άρου | na árou | ’that I take’ |
| Imperative (continuous) | άριτσ̑ε | áritsse | ’keep taking!’ |
| Imperative (simple) | άρε | áre | ’take!’ |
| Perfect participle | παρτέ | parté | ’taken’ |
φερίκ̔ου (feríkhou, ‘to bring’)
Corresponds to SMG φέρνω (in the literal sense; also ‘to behave’). Suppletive aorist ενέγκα.
| Form | Tsakonian | Transliteration | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Present indicative | ένι φερίκ̔ου | éni ferikhoú | ’I bring’ |
| Imperfect | έμα φερίκ̔ου | éma ferikhoú | ’I was bringing’ |
| Aorist indicative | ενέγκα | enéngka | ’I brought’ |
| Aorist subjunctive | να φέρου | na férou | ’that I bring’ |
| Imperative (continuous) | φέριτσ̑ε | féritsse | ’keep bringing!’ |
| Imperative (simple) | φέρε | fére | ’bring!’ |
| Perfect participle | φερτέ | ferté | ’brought’ |
| Passive present | ένι φερικ̔ούμενε | éni ferikhoúmene | ’I am brought’ |
γινούμενε (ginoúmene, ‘to become’)
Corresponds to SMG γίνομαι. A deponent verb — passive in form but active in meaning.
| Form | Tsakonian | Transliteration | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Present indicative | ένι γινούμενε | éni ginoúmene | ’I become’ |
| Imperfect | έμα γινούμενε | éma ginoúmene | ’I was becoming’ |
| Aorist indicative | ενάμα | enáma | ’I became’ |
| Present subjunctive | να γινούμα | na ginoúma | ’that I keep becoming’ |
| Aorist subjunctive | να ναθού | na nazoú | ’that I become’ |
| Imperative (continuous) | γινίσου | ginísou | ’keep becoming!’ |
| Imperative (simple) | νάσου | násou | ’become!’ |
| Perfect participle | νατέ | naté | ’become’ |
μπάνου (bánou, ‘to enter’)
Corresponds to SMG μπαίνω. Suppletive aorist εμπαλ̣ήκα.
| Form | Tsakonian | Transliteration | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Present indicative | ένι μπάνου | éni bánou | ’I enter’ |
| Imperfect | έμα μπάνου | éma bánou | ’I was entering’ |
| Aorist indicative | εμπαλ̣ήκα | empal’íka | ’I entered’ |
| Aorist subjunctive | να μπάλου | na bálou | ’that I enter’ |
| Imperative (simple) | μπάλε | bále | ’enter!’ |
| Perfect participle | μπαλ̣ητέ | bal’ité | ’entered’ |
βάνου (vánou, ‘to put’)
Corresponds to SMG βάζω. Suppletive aorist stem βαλ̣-.
| Form | Tsakonian | Transliteration | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Present indicative | ένι βάνου | éni vánou | ’I put’ |
| Imperfect | έμα βάνου | éma vánou | ’I was putting’ |
| Aorist indicative | εβαλ̣ήκα | eval’íka | ’I put’ |
| Aorist subjunctive | να βάλου | na válou | ’that I put’ |
| Imperative (simple) | βάλε | bále | ’put!’ |
| Perfect participle | βαλ̣ητέ | val’ité | ’put’ |
ερέχου (eréchou, ‘to find’)
Has irregular aorist and participle relative to the expected PA10 pattern.
| Form | Tsakonian | Transliteration |
|---|---|---|
| Present indicative | ένι ερέχου | éni eréchou |
| Imperfect | έμα ερέχου | éma eréchou |
| Aorist indicative | ερέκα | eréka |
| Perfect participle | ερεστέ | eresté |
Annex: full paradigm table
For quick reference, the two tables below compile all the regular endings and every paradigm and irregular verb in one place.
Regular conjugation — endings by tense
The complete tense-aspect-mood endings for a regular verb, in both voices (García Chaparro, 2023):
Active voice:
| Number | Person | Present Indicative | Imperfect Indicative | Aorist Indicative | Perfect | Pluperfect | Future Continuous | Future Simple | Future Perfect | Present Subjunctive | Aorist Subjunctive | Imperative Continuous | Imperative Punctual | Conditional Continuous | Conditional Simple |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sing. | 1st | ένι + pres. part. | έμα + pres. part. | -α / -κα (-a / -ka) | ένι έχου + perf. part. | έμα έχου + perf. part. | θα + pres. subj. | θα + aor. subj. | θα έχου + perf. part. | -ου (-ou) | -ου (-ou) | θάκια + pres. subj. | θάκια + aor. subj. | ||
| 2nd | -ερε (-ere) | -ερε (-ere) | -ε (-e) | -ε / -ερε (-e / -ere) | |||||||||||
| 3rd | -ει (-ei) | -ει (-ei) | |||||||||||||
| Plur. | 1st | έμε + pres. part. | έμαϊ + pres. part. | -αμε / -καμε (-ame / -kame) | έμε έχου + perf. part. | έμαϊ έχου + perf. part. | = | = | = | -ομε (-ome) | -ομε (-ome) | = | = | ||
| 2nd | -ατε / -κατε (-ate / -kate) | -ετε (-ete) | -ετε (-ete) | -ετε (-ete) | -ετε (-ete) | ||||||||||
| 3rd | είνι + pres. part. | ήγκι + pres. part. | -αϊ / -καϊ (-aï / -kaï) | είνι έχου + perf. part. | ήγκι έχου + perf. part. | -ωι (-oi) | -ωι (-oi) |
Passive voice:
| Number | Person | Present Indicative | Imperfect Indicative | Aorist Indicative | Perfect | Pluperfect | Future Continuous | Future Simple | Future Perfect | Present Subjunctive | Aorist Subjunctive | Imperative Continuous | Imperative Punctual | Conditional Continuous | Conditional Simple |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sing. | 1st | ένι + pres. pass. part. | έμα + pres. pass. part. | -μα (-ma) | ένι + perf. pass. part. | έμα + perf. pass. part. | θα + pres. pass. subj. | θα + aor. pass. subj. | θα + perf. pass. part. | -ούμα (-oúma) | -αθού / -ου (-azoú / -ou) | θάκια + pres. pass. subj. | θάκια + aor. pass. subj. | ||
| 2nd | -ειρε (-eire) | -ησου (-isou) | -ου (-ou) | -ου / -σου (-ou / -sou) | |||||||||||
| 3rd | -ε (-e) | -ηται (-itai) | -εί (-eí) | ||||||||||||
| Plur. | 1st | έμε + pres. pass. part. | έμαϊ + pres. pass. part. | -μαϊ (-maï) | -ούμαϊ (-oúmaï) | -ούμε (-oúme) | |||||||||
| 2nd | -ατε (-ate) | -ητ̔ε (-ithe) | -είτε (-eíte) | -είτε (-eíte) | |||||||||||
| 3rd | είνι + pres. pass. part. | ήγκι + pres. pass. part. | -αϊ (-aï) | -ονται (-ontai) | -ούν̇ι (-oún’i) |
Note: Perfect and Pluperfect Active use the auxiliary ‘to have’ (ένι έχου / έμα έχου) + the perfect participle (verbal adjective in -τέ, -té). In the Passive they are often formed with ‘to be’ (ένι / έμα) + the same participle.
Note: in the active voice the continuous and simple imperatives carry the same endings (-ε / -ετε); they differ only in the stem (present vs. aorist), exactly like the present and aorist subjunctives.
All paradigm classes and irregular verbs
| Paradigm | Active Pres. Ind. | Active Aor. Ind. | Passive Pres. Ind. | Passive Aor. Ind. | Active Pres. Subj. | Active Aor. Subj. | Passive Pres. Subj. | Passive Aor. Subj. | Active Imp. (Pres.) | Active Imp. (Aor.) | Passive Imp. (Pres.) | Passive Imp. (Aor.) | Perf. Part. (-τέ) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PA1 | -άνου (-ánou) | -άκα (-áka) | +‘μένε (+‘méne) | -άμα (-áma) | -άνου (-ánou) | -άου (-áou) | +‘μα (+‘ma) | -ατού (-atoú) | -ατέ (-até) | ||||
| PA1 | -ίνου (-ínou) | -ίκα (-íka) | +‘μένε (+‘méne) | -ίμα (-íma) | -ίνου (-ínou) | -ίου (-íou) | +‘μα (+‘ma) | -ιθού (-izoú) | -ιτέ (-ité) | ||||
| PA1 | -ήνου (-ínou) | -ήκα (-íka) | -ήμα (-íma) | -ήνου (-ínou) | -ήου (-íou) | -ηθού (-izoú) | -ητέ (-ité) | ||||||
| PA2A | -αίνου (-aínou) | -άκα (-áka) | +‘μένε (+‘méne) | -άμα (-áma) | -αίνου (-aínou) | -άου (-áou) | +‘μα (+‘ma) | -αθού (-azoú) | -ατέ (-até) | ||||
| PA2H | -αίνου (-aínou) | -ήκα (-íka) | -ητέ (-ité) | ||||||||||
| PA2E | -αίνου (-aínou) | -έγκα (-éngka) | -ετέ (-eté) | ||||||||||
| PA3 | -ούνου (-oúnou) | -ούκα (-oúka) | +‘μένε (+‘méne) | -ούμα (-oúma) | -ούνου (-oúnou) | -ού (-oú) | +‘μα (+‘ma) | -ουθού (-ouzoú) | -ουτέ (-outé) | ||||
| PA4 | -ούκ̔ου (-oúkhou) | -ούκα (-oúka) | +‘μένε (+‘méne) | -ούμα (-oúma) | -ουτάε (-outáe) | -ού (-oú) | +‘μα (+‘ma) | -ουθού (-ouzoú) | -ουτσ̑ε (-outsse) | -ου (-ou) | -ούτσ̑ισου (-outssisou) | -ούσου (-oúsou) | -ουτέ (-outé) |
| PA5 | -ίχου (-íchou) | -ία (-ía) | +‘μένε (+‘méne) | -ίμα (-íma) | -ίχου (-íchou) | -ίτσου (-ítsou) | +‘μα (+‘ma) | -ιτού (-itoú) | -ιτέ (-ité) | ||||
| PA5 | -ίντου (-íntou) | -ία (-ía) | +‘μένε (+‘méne) | -ίμα (-íma) | -ίντου (-íntou) | -ίτσου (-ítsou) | +‘μα (+‘ma) | -ιτού (-itoú) | -ιτσε (-itse) | -ιτέ (-ité) | |||
| PA5 | -ύντου (-ýntou) | -ύα (-ýa) | +‘μένε (+‘méne) | -ύμα (-ýma) | -ύντου (-ýntou) | -ύτσου (-ýtsou) | +‘μα (+‘ma) | -υτού (-ytoú) | -υτέ (-yté) | ||||
| PA5 | -άντου (-ántou) | -ά (-a) | +μενε (+mene) | -άμα (-áma) | -άντου (-ántou) | -άτσου (-átsou) | +μα (+ma) | -ατού (-atoú) | -αντε (-ante) | -ατσε (-atse) | -αντισου (-antisou) | -άτσου (-átsou) | -ατέ (-até) |
| PA6 | -ίζου (-ízou) | -ία (-ía) | -ισκούμενε (-iskoúmene) | -ίσμα (-ísma) | -ίζου (-ízou) | -ου (-ou) | -ισκούμα (-iskoúma) | -ιστού (-istoú) | -ιζε (-ize) | -ισε (-ise) | -ίζισου (-ízisou) | -ίσου (-ísou) | -ιστέ (-isté) |
| PA6 | -ύζου (-ýzou) | -ύα (-ýa) | -ύσμα (-ýsma) | -ύζου (-ýzou) | -ύσου (-ýsou) | -υστού (-ystoú) | -υστέ (-ysté) | ||||||
| PA6 | -άζου (-ázou) | -ά (-á) | -άσμα (-ásma) | -άζου (-ázou) | -άσου (-ásou) | -αστού (-astoú) | -ασε (-ase) | -αστέ (-asté) | |||||
| PA7 | -φου (-fou) | -βα (-va) | +‘μένε (+‘méne) | -‘μα (-‘ma) | -φου (-fou) | -ψου (-psou) | +‘μα (+‘ma) | -φτού (-ftoú) | -φε (-fe) | -ψε (-pse) | -φισου (-fisou) | -ψου (-psou) | -φτέ (-fté) |
| PA8 | -έγγου (-éngou) | -εύα (-eúa) | +‘μένε (+‘méne) | -έμα (-éma) | -έγγου (-éngou) | -έψου (-épsou) | +‘μα (+‘ma) | -ευτού (-eutoú) | -εμπζε (-empzze) | -εψε (-epse) | -έμπζισου (-émpzzisou) | -έψου (-épsou) | -ευτέ (-euté) |
| PA9 | -ίγγου (-íngou) | -ία (-ía) | -ίμα (-íma) | -ίγγου (-íngou) | -ίτσου (-ítsou) | -ιτού (-itoú) | -ιτέ (-ité) | ||||||
| PA10 | -έχου (-échou) | -έα (-éa) | -έμα (-éma) | -έχου (-échou) | -έστου (-éstou) | -ετού (-etoú) | -ετέ (-eté) | ||||||
| PA11 | -ίου (-íou) | -ούκα (-oúka) | -ούμα (-oúma) | -ίνου (-ínou) | -ου (-ou) | -ουθού (-ouzoú) | -ουτέ (-outé) | ||||||
| PA11 | -οίου (-oíou) | -ήκα (-íka) | -ήμα (-íma) | -οίνου (-oínou) | -οίου (-oíou) | -ηθού (-izoú) | -ητέ (-ité) | ||||||
| PA12 | -αίσου (-aísou) | -άκα (-áka) | -άμα (-áma) | -αίσου (-aísou) | -άου (-áou) | -αθού (-azoú) | -ατέ (-até) | ||||||
| PA13 | -ρίκου (-ríkou) | -γα (-ga) | -ρίκου (-ríkou) | -ου (-ou) | -αρτέ (-arté) | ||||||||
| PA14 | -ρου (-rou) | -ρκα (-rka) | -ρμα (-rma) | -ρου (-rou) | -ρου (-rou) | -ρθού (-rzoú) | -ρτέ (-rté) | ||||||
| PA15 | -άσσου (-ássou) | -ά (-á) | +‘μένε (+‘méne) | -άσμα (-ásma) | -άσσου (-ássou) | -άτσου (-átsou) | -αστού (-astoú) | -αστέ (-asté) | |||||
| PA16 | -άχου (-áchou) | -ά (-á) | -αχούμενε (-achoúmene) | -άμα / -άσμα (-áma / -ásma) | -άχου (-áchou) | -άτσου (-átsou) | -αχούμα (-achoúma) | -ατού (-atoú) | -ατέ (-até) | ||||
| RD | -ντου (-ntou) / -ουντα (-ounta) | ||||||||||||
| PB1 | -αού (-aoú) | -άκα (-áka) | +μενε (+mene) | -άμα (-áma) | -αλήνου (-alínou) | -άου (-aoú) | -ηνούμα (-inoúma) | -αθού (-azoú) | -ηνε (-ine) | -α (-a) | -ήνισου (-ínisou) | -ασου (-asou) | -ατέ (-até) |
| PB2 | -ού (-oú) | -ήκα (-íka) | -ηκούμενε (-ikoúmene) | -ήμα (-íma) | -ήνου (-ínou) | -ήου (-íou) | -ηκούμα (-ikoúma) | -ηθού (-izoú) | -ήτσ̌ισου (-ítshisou) | -ήσου (-ísou) | -ητέ (-ité) | ||
| PB3 | -ού (-oú) | -έκα (-éka) | -εσκούμενε (-eskoúmene) | -ήνου (-ínou) | -έου (-éou) | -εσκούμα (-eskoúma) | -ηνε (-ine) | -ε (-e) | -έτσ̌ισου (-étshisou) | -ετέ (-eté) | |||
| αού (aoú, ‘to say’) | επέκα (epéka) | αλ̣ικούμενε (al’ikoúmene) | επέμα (epéma) | αλ̣ήνου (al’ínou) | αλ̣ήου (al’íou) | αλ̣ικούμα (al’ikoúma) | αλ̣ήμα (al’íma) | άλ̣ηνε (ál’ine) | άλε (ále) | πετέ (peté) | |||
| αρίκ̔ου (aríkhou, ‘to take’) | άγκα (ángka) | άρου (árou) | άριτσ̑ε (áritsse) | άρε (áre) | παρτέ (parté) | ||||||||
| έγγου (éngou, ‘to go’) | εζάκα (ezzáka) | ζάου (zzáou) | έντζε (éntzze) | χάγγε (chángge) | ζατέ (zzaté) | ||||||||
| παρίου (paríou, ‘to come’) | εκάνα (ekána) | μόλου (mólou) | παρίσου (parísou) | έα (éa) | φερτέ (ferté) | ||||||||
| τσ̌ού (tshoú, ‘to eat’) | εφαήκα (efaíka) | τσ̌ούνου (tshoúnou) | φάου (fáou) | τσ̌ούνε (tshoúne) | φάε (fáe) | φαητέ (faité) | |||||||
| φερίκ̔ου (ferikhoú, ‘to bring’) | ενέγκα (enéngka) | φερικ̔ούμενε (ferikhoúmene) | εφέρμα (eférma) | φέρου (férou) | φερικ̔ούμα (ferikhoúma) | φερθού (ferzoú) | φέριτσ̑ε (féritsse) | φέρε (fére) | φερίτσ̑ισου (ferítssisou) | φερίσου (ferísou) | φερτέ (ferté) | ||
| γινούμενε (ginoúmene, ‘to become’) | γινούμενε (ginoúmene) | ενάμα (enáma) | γινούμα (ginoúma) | ναθού (nazoú) | γινίσου (ginísou) | νάσου (násou) | νατέ (naté) | ||||||
| μπάνου (bánou, ‘to enter’) | εμπαλ̣ήκα (empal’íka) | μπάλου (bálou) | μπάλε (bále) | μπαλ̣ητέ (bal’ité) | |||||||||
| βάνου (vánou, ‘to put’) | εβαλ̣ήκα (eval’íka) | βάλου (válou) | βαλ̣ητέ (val’ité) | ||||||||||
| ερέχου (eréchou, ‘to find’) | ερέκα (eréka) | ερεστέ (eresté) | |||||||||||
| ένι (éni, ‘to be’) | ένι (éni) | έμα (éma) | ένι (éni) | ||||||||||
| έχου (échou, ‘to have’) | ένι έχου (éni échou) | έμα έχου (éma échou) | έχου (échou) |
Additional information
Transitivity marking: the suffix -αΐχου
The suffix -αΐχου (-aíchou) is widely used to derive transitive (causative) verbs from intransitive bases (Liosis, 2017):
| Intransitive | Transliteration | Translation | Transitive (-αΐχου) | Transliteration | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| μοζού | mozzoú | ’feel pain’ | μοζαΐχου | mozzaíchou | ’cause pain’ |
| γερού | geroú | ’get old’ | γεραΐχου | geraíchou | ’cause someone to age’ |
Subjunctive vs. indicative: a Doric archaism
Tsakonian is the only Modern Greek dialect that preserves morphologically distinct endings in the monolectic (single-word) subjunctive, in contrast to the periphrastic indicative. In SMG the subjunctive has merged completely with the indicative; Tsakonian’s distinction — ένι ορού (éni oroú, indicative ‘I see’) vs. να ορίνου (na orínou, subjunctive ‘that I keep seeing’) — is a direct Doric archaism (see 1.3 Doric heritage) (Liosis, 2017).
| Voice | Mood | Imperfective | Transliteration | Perfective | Transliteration |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Active | Indicative | ένι ορού ‘I see’ | éni oroú | — | |
| Subjunctive | να ορίνου ‘that I see’ | na orínou | να οράου ‘that I see’ | na oraoú | |
| Passive | Indicative | ένι ορούμενε ‘I am seen’ | éni oroúmene | — | |
| Subjunctive | να ορινούμα ‘that I be seen’ | na orinoúma | να οραθού ‘that I be seen’ | na orazoú |
The mediopassive present subjunctive mixes the person endings of the ancient subjunctive and optative: να γραφούμα (na grafoúma, ‘I be written’) parallels the ancient optative γραφοίμην (grafoimín), while the 3rd person να γράφηται (na gráfiti) derives from the ancient subjunctive γράφηται (gráfiti) (Liosis, 2017).
The mediopassive aorist and Doric perfect
The mediopassive aorist paradigm is particularly archaic. The ending -μα (-ma) corresponds to the -μην (-min) of the middle aorist of athematic verbs in Attic, as in ορά-μα (orá-ma, ‘I was seen’) beside Attic ἐδό-μην (edó-min) (Liosis, 2017). As past tenses merged, Tsakonian preserved ancient Doric voiced consonants (/v/, /g/) where Athens used breathy sounds — for example εκρέβα (ekréva, ‘I stole’) reflects Doric (Messenian) κεκλεβώς (keklevós) rather than Attic κέκλοφα (kéklopha).
Laconian origin of the periphrasis
Contrary to Aerts’s (1965) claim that these periphrases are an innovation, verbal periphrases leading to the modern Tsakonian system are already attested in Hesychius’s Laconian glosses — Hesychius being a 5th-century AD lexicographer who compiled rare Laconian words (Liosis, 2017). The gloss ἐξηληµβώρ (exilimmór, ‘to perceive’), equivalent to Attic ἐξειληφώς (ἦν), shows that the periphrastic system is an inherited Laconian feature, not an independent development. See 1.3 Doric heritage for the broader context of Doric morphological inheritance.
General note on the augment
In the indicative aorist, an initial ε- (augment) is added when the verb does not begin with a vowel, e.g. γράφου (gráfou, ‘to write’) → έγραβα (égrava, ‘I wrote’), but ορού (oroú, ‘to see’) → οράκα (oráka, ‘I saw’) with no added augment (García Chaparro, 2023).
References
- Liosis, N. (2017). Tsakonian Studies: The State-of-the-Art. Tsakonian Studies State of the Art.md
- García Chaparro, J. (2023). Condensed Grammar of the Tsakonian Language in Tables. Condensed Grammar of the Tsakonian Language in Tables.md
- Lysikatos, N. (n.d.). Aspects of the Passive in Tsakonian. Aspects of the Passive in Tsakonian.md
- Kostakis, A. P. (1951). Σύντομη Γραμματική της Τσακώνικης Διαλέκτου (Sýntomi Grammatikí tis Tsakónikis Dialéktou). Institut Français d’Athènes. Kostakis Short Grammar of Tsakonian 1951.md